The advent of monoclonal antibody technology in the mid 1970's heralded a new age of medicine. For the first time, researchers and clinicians had access to essentially unlimited quantities of uniform antibodies capable of binding to a predetermined antigenic site and having various immunological effector functions. These proteins, known as “monoclonal antibodies” were thought to hold great promise in, e.g., the removal of harmful cells in vivo. Indeed, the clinical value of monoclonal antibodies seemed limitless for this use alone.
Unfortunately, the development of appropriate therapeutic products based on these proteins has been severely hampered by a number of drawbacks inherent in monoclonal antibody production. For example, most monoclonal antibodies are mouse derived, and thus do not fix human complement well. They also lack other important immunoglobulin functional characteristics when used in humans.
Perhaps most importantly, non-human monoclonal antibodies contain substantial stretches of amino acid sequences that will be immunogenic when injected into a human patient. Numerous studies have shown that after injection of a foreign antibody, the immune response mounted by a patient can be quite strong, essentially eliminating the antibody's therapeutic utility after an initial treatment. Moreover, as increasing numbers of different mouse or other antigenic (to humans) monoclonal antibodies can be expected to be developed to treat various diseases, after one or several treatments with any non-human antibodies, subsequent treatments, even for unrelated therapies, can be ineffective or even dangerous in themselves, because of cross-reactivity.
While the production of so called “chimeric antibodies” (e.g., mouse variable regions joined to human constant regions) has proven somewhat successful, a significant immunogenicity problem remains. Moreover, efforts to immortalize human B-cells or generate human hybridomas capable of producing human immunoglobulins against a desired antigen have been generally unsuccessful, particularly with many important human antigens. Most recently, recombinant DNA technology has been utilized to produce immunoglobulins which have human framework regions combined with complementarity determining regions (CDR's) from a donor mouse or rat immunoglobulin (see, e.g., EPO Publication No. 0239400, which is incorporated herein by reference). These new proteins are called “reshaped” or “humanized” immunoglobulins and the process by which the donor immunoglobulin is converted into a human-like immunoglobulin by combining its CDR's with a human framework is called “humanization”. Humanized antibodies are important because they bind to the same antigen as the original antibodies, but are less immunogenic when injected into humans.
However, a major problem with present humanization procedures has been a loss of affinity for the antigen (Jones et al., Nature, 321, 522–525 (1986)), in some instances as much as 10-fold or more, especially when the antigen is a protein (Verhoeyen et al., Science, 239, 1534–1536 (1988)). Loss of any affinity is, of course, highly undesirable. At the least, it means that more of the humanized antibody will have to be injected into the patient, at higher cost and greater risk of adverse effects. Even more critically, an antibody with reduced affinity may have poorer biological functions, such as complement lysis, antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity, or virus neutralization. For example, the loss of affinity in the partially humanized antibody HuVHCAMP may have caused it to lose all ability to mediate complement lysis (see, Riechmann et al., Nature, 332, 323–327 (1988); Table 1).
Thus, there is a need for improved means for producing humanized antibodies specifically reactive with strong affinity to a predetermined antigen. These humanized immunoglobulins should remain substantially non-immunogenic in humans, yet be easily and economically produced in a manner suitable for therapeutic formulation and other uses. The present invention fulfills these and other needs.